Noise Sensitivity of Students in Relation to Noise Annoyance, Sleep Quality and Inability to Cope with Noise

Introduction

Noise, as an environmental stressor, adversely affects psychological and physiological health. The auditory system remains active even during sleep, linking with central and neuroendocrine systems to process sound. Excessive noise impairs alertness, cognition, and motor function. Perceived noise sensitivity, an individual’s heightened reactivity to environmental sounds, is both a physiological and psychological response.¹ It significantly predicts noise annoyance and influences psychological well-being and health perception.¹

Noise sensitivity is influenced by factors such as age, gender, education, residence duration, health status, and personality traits, particularly the Big Five, with introversion-extroversion playing a key role.^2-4 Sociodemo graphic variables like work status and socioeconomic class also contribute.⁵ Research shows a moderate correlation between noise sensitivity, exposure, and annoyance.^6-8 Highly sensitive individuals report greater annoyance from common noise sources (e.g., traffic, trains, aircraft), negatively impacting psychological well-being.^9,10 Noise sensitivity accounts for up to 26% of the variance in noise annoyance, highlighting its significant role in shaping individual responses to environmental noise.^9,11,12

Noise sensitivity significantly affects sleep duration and quality, with sensitive individuals more prone to nonrestorative and poor-quality sleep.¹³ It is also linked to higher risks of depression, insomnia, and anxiety, especially among those with specific demographic traits and health issues.^14-15 Individuals with high noise sensitivity, particularly those with specific demographic personalities, health issues, and longer durations of residence, are over twice as likely to experience depression and insomnia, and 1.9 times more likely to suffer from anxiety.¹⁶ Increased noise exposure at home or work, environmental attitudes, and lack of control over noise further elevates sensitivity.¹⁷ Environmental attitudes, including concern for nature and perceived control over noise, are also linked.¹⁸ Among students, noise sensitivity is particularly concerning due to exposure from construction, dormitories, social events, and transport.¹⁹ Irregular sleep, study patterns, and recreation may further increase their vulnerability.²⁰ Notably, noise sensitivity significantly contributes to noise annoyance and has been recognised as a key factor in health deterioration.²¹ As noise sensitivity contributes to annoyance and health decline, this study aimed to explore its psychological aspects and address related research gaps.

The objective of the study was to investigate whether noise sensitivity differs significantly according to the level of noise annoyance at home, at work, on the road, sleep quality, inability to protect against noise, and overall noise annoyance in life, and if there is any relation among the variables.

Materials and Methods

This study was conducted using a descriptive, crosssectional survey research design. The sample included 473 Bangladeshi students (male 200 and female 273), aged between 18 and 28 years. Participants were selected using a convenience sampling method from f ive different educational institutions in Rajshahi city, Bangladesh. The data were collected during January and February 2024.

The inclusion criteria for this research were limited to students. Individuals from other professions were not considered. Both college and university students from the first year up to postgraduation were involved. All participants resided in the Rajshahi metropolitan area for at least one year.

The sample size was calculated using the following formula: n = Z² × p × q/d² = 1.96² × 0.5 × 0.5/0.05 = 384; here, n = minimum sample size, Z = confidence level z-statistic = 1.96, p = expected proportion for unknown population = 0.5, q = 1-p = 1-.5 = .5, and d = desired precision = .05. As per this formula, the total sample size was estimated as 384. However, we collected data from 473 participants.

The following instruments were used to gather related information from the respondents. The Weinstein noise sensitivity scale short of Bangla version (WNSS-SF-BV) consisting of a five-item unidimensional scale assessing personal differences with reactional and emotional attitudes towards noise. It is a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6).  Scores on this scale range from 6 (which indicates lower noise sensitivity) to 30 (which indicates higher noise sensitivity). These five self reported WNSS-SF-BV items, originally coded as items 7, 8, 18, 19, and 21, are derived from Weinstein’s original 21-item scale.²² In this study, the WNSS-SF-BV was used, which was adapted by the authors and remained unpublished till now. The authors found that the scale has excellent psychometric properties [Chisquare/df = 1.24, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) =.998, Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) =.996, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) =.022, Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) =.014] and excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha =.759, McDonald’s omega =.74, test-retest reliability =.724).

Most of the data were collected from the classroom. Before proceeding, the participants dedicated time to thoroughly peruse the consent form. After expressing their agreement with the consent form, they were instructed to complete the questionnaire in greater detail. The task could be completed within a timeframe of fifteen to twenty minutes, even though no specific time constraint was followed. Participants were informed about the study’s objectives, their involvement was voluntary, conducted anonymously, and treated with confidentiality.

The data analysis in this study was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 26. Descriptive statistics, F-tests, and multivariate linear regression were computed. The researchers conducted descriptive statistics to provide a precise and brief overview of the data. The researchers employed the F-test to investigate whether two independent samples were drawn from a normal population with the same variability. The study applied multivariate linear regression to estimate the correlation between noise sensitivity and the variables linked to the participants. Before performing the calculation, we verified the normality of the data and assessed other assumptions. The results of the assumptions allowed us to conduct additional analyses.

Results

Out of 473 students aged 18 to 28 years (mean age=22.88, SD 2.05), 200 individuals (42.3%) were male and 273 individuals (57.7%) were female. Regarding educational qualifications, 23 students (4.9%) had completed higher secondary education, 360 students (76.1%) had graduated with honours, and 90 students (19%) had completed undergraduate studies.

In terms of prevalence of noise sensitivity among students, the data were categorised into three groups based on percentile (quartile) distribution: low, medium, and high noise sensitivity. Students with low sensitivity accounted for 22.62% (n = 107), those with medium sensitivity comprised the majority at 58.14% (n = 275), and students with high-sensitivity represented 19.24% (n = 91) of the participants (Table 1).

A one-way ANOVA was executed to observe the impact of noise annoyance at home, noise annoyance in the workplace, noise annoyance on the road, sleep quality, inability to protect against noise, and noise annoyance in overall life, on total noise sensitivity. All the results showed a significant difference among the groups. These f indings suggest that noise annoyance at home [F(4, 468) = 5.649, P <.001], noise annoyance in workplace [F(4, 468) = 6.809, P <.001], noise annoyance on road [F(4, 468) = 5.604, P <.001], sleep quality [F(4, 468) = 2.416, P =.048], inability to protect against noise [F(4, 468) = 4.292, P = .002] and noise annoyance in overall life [F(4, 468) = 8.910, P < .001], has a significant impact on total noise sensitivity (Table 2).

Dependent variable: Total noise sensitivity score.

Predictors: Noise annoyance at home, noise annoyance at work, noise annoyance on the road, sleep quality, inability to protect against noise and noise annoyance in overall life.

A multiple regression analysis was conducted to forecast total noise sensitivity based on six predictors. The model was statistically significant, F (6, 466) = 9.29, P < .001, and accounted for approximately 10.70% of the variance in total noise sensitivity (R² = .107). Among the predictors, noise annoyance on the road (β = .10, P = .04), inability to protect against noise (β = .18, P <.001), and noise annoyance in overall life (β = .10, P = .02) were statistically significant (Table 3).

Discussion

The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of noise annoyance, sleep quality, and inability to protect against noise on noise sensitivity. About 473 respondents from five different educational institutions in Rajshahi were conveniently selected. The phrase “noise sensitivity” encompasses various concepts that can be influenced by a single underlying dimension or a more complex set of processes.⁶ Noise sensitivity has been seen as a personality attribute that might predict both discomfort and health-related consequences resulting from exposure to noise in general.¹⁶

The first objective was to measure the levels of noise sensitivity among the respondents. The results revealed that a significant number of students reported a medium level of noise sensitivity (58.14%), while approximately one-fifth of the students reported a high level of noise sensitivity (19.24%) (Table 1). This result is partially consistent with Shepherd et al.² They found that approximately 52% and 11% of the participants reported being moderately and very noise-sensitive, respectively. Most of the research found that high noise sensitivity in general ranged between 12% and 15%.^23,24

The second objective was to examine whether noise sensitivity differs significantly according to the level of noise annoyance at home, noise annoyance at work, noise annoyance on the road, sleep quality, inability to cope with noise, and overall noise annoyance in the life of the participants. The results indicated that noise annoyance at home, noise annoyance at work, noise annoyance on the road, sleep quality, inability to cope with noise, and overall noise annoyance in life, all had significant effects on the participants’ noise sensitivity (Table 2). These findings align with earlier research. People who experience higher degrees of aggravation from noise, whether it is at home or at work, are more likely to have a heightened sensitivity to noise.¹⁷ The degree of sensitivity to noise greatly affects the length and quality of sleep.²⁵ Multiple studies have shown that those who are more susceptible to noise disturbances throughout the night are more likely to have sleep that does not fully restore their energy and well-being.¹³ Furthermore, research has demonstrated a robust association between noise sensitivity and worse sleep quality.¹⁴ A recent research conducted by Sarker et al., yielded the same findings.²⁶ Although the study focused on students, it suggests that noise sensitivity should be examined across vocations and age groups. The study only included students from the Rajshahi metropolitan city. Thus, future studies should include students from Dhaka and other cities to avoid regional differences. The study only examined a few factors, but future researchers should use more to better understand their impact. Bias may have occurred due to the self-reported and non probability study.

Conclusion

This study examined noise sensitivity levels among respondents and explored differences based on noise annoyance at home, work, and on the road, sleep quality, and the ability to cope with noise. Findings revealed that noise sensitivity is strongly linked with overall noise annoyance, poor sleep quality, and, most notably, the inability to cope with noise, which emerged as a major predictor. All examined factors significantly influenced students’ noise sensitivity. Further research is recommended to develop strategies for reducing urban noise pollution, particularly in Rajshahi metropolitan city, to enhance student well-being and academic performance.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

Funding

This research did not receive any financial support.

Ethical Consideration

Ethical clearance obtained from the Institutional Animal, Medical Ethics, Biosafety, and Biosecurity Committee (IAMEBBC) for Experimentations on Animal, Human, Microbes and Living Natural Sources at the Institute of Biological Sciences (IBSc), University of Rajshahi Research Ethics Committee (Reference No.: 455(12)/320/IAMEBBC/IBSc; Date: 14/09/2023). This ethical approval has been obtained as part of the original research of the PhD, and these data were also obtained from the main survey of PhD research. This article is ‍also carried out as part of the partial fulfilment of the requirements of the PhD degree.

Data availability statement

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are shared upon request of the corresponding author.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Centre for Advanced Research in Psychology, Public Health, Humanities, Education & Social Sciences (CARPHESS) organisation for providing all assistance. We are also thankful to all participants.